國(guó)務(wù)院新聞辦公室5月21日發(fā)表《西藏和平解放與繁榮發(fā)展》白皮書。

全文如下：

西藏和平解放與繁榮發(fā)展
Tibet Since 1951: Liberation, Development and Prosperity

中華人民共和國(guó)
國(guó)務(wù)院新聞辦公室
二〇二一年五月·北京
The State Council Information Office of
the People's Republic of China
May 2021

前言
Foreword

一、和平解放前的西藏
I. Tibet Before the Peaceful Liberation

二、實(shí)現(xiàn)和平解放
II. Peaceful Liberation

三、社會(huì)制度的歷史跨越
III. Historic Changes in Society

四、各項(xiàng)事業(yè)加快發(fā)展
IV. Rapid Development of Various Undertakings

五、脫貧攻堅(jiān)全面勝利
V. A Complete Victory over Poverty

六、優(yōu)秀傳統(tǒng)文化得到保護(hù)和發(fā)展
VI. Protection and Development of Traditional Culture

七、民族宗教工作成效顯著
VII. Remarkable Results in Ethnic and Religious Work

八、生態(tài)安全屏障日益堅(jiān)實(shí)
VIII. Solid Environmental Safety Barriers

九、堅(jiān)定維護(hù)國(guó)家統(tǒng)一和社會(huì)穩(wěn)定
IX. Resolutely Safeguarding National Unity and Social Stability

十、新時(shí)代新征程
X. Embarking on a New Journey in the New Era

結(jié)束語(yǔ)
Conclusion

前言
Foreword

1951年5月23日，《中央人民政府和西藏地方政府關(guān)于和平解放西藏辦法的協(xié)議》（簡(jiǎn)稱《十七條協(xié)議》）的簽訂，宣告西藏和平解放。從此，西藏人民永遠(yuǎn)擺脫了帝國(guó)主義的侵略和羈絆，與全國(guó)各族人民一道在祖國(guó)大家庭里走上了團(tuán)結(jié)、進(jìn)步、發(fā)展的光明大道。
On May 23, 1951, the Agreement of the Central People's Government and the Local Government of Tibet on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet (the 17-Article Agreement) was signed. The people of Tibet broke free from the fetters of invading imperialism for good, embarking on a bright road of unity, progress and development with all the other ethnic groups in China.

以和平解放為起點(diǎn)，西藏各族人民在中國(guó)共產(chǎn)黨的堅(jiān)強(qiáng)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下團(tuán)結(jié)奮進(jìn)，貫徹執(zhí)行《十七條協(xié)議》，有力維護(hù)了國(guó)家主權(quán)、祖國(guó)統(tǒng)一和領(lǐng)土完整；進(jìn)行民主改革，徹底廢除了政教合一的封建農(nóng)奴制，百萬(wàn)農(nóng)奴翻身解放、當(dāng)家作主，各族人民的根本利益得到保障；建立社會(huì)主義制度，實(shí)行民族區(qū)域自治，西藏社會(huì)制度實(shí)現(xiàn)了歷史性跨越；扎實(shí)推進(jìn)改革開放和現(xiàn)代化建設(shè)，極大解放和發(fā)展了社會(huì)生產(chǎn)力，極大改善了西藏各族人民生產(chǎn)生活條件。進(jìn)入新時(shí)代，在以習(xí)近平同志為核心的黨中央堅(jiān)強(qiáng)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，在全國(guó)人民大力支持下，西藏脫貧攻堅(jiān)全面勝利，社會(huì)大局更加穩(wěn)定、經(jīng)濟(jì)文化更加繁榮、生態(tài)環(huán)境更加良好、人民生活更加幸福，一個(gè)嶄新的社會(huì)主義新西藏呈現(xiàn)在世人面前。
Following the peaceful liberation, all the ethnic peoples of Tibet, united under the strong leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC), have worked together in implementing the 17-Article Agreement, and stood firm in safeguarding national sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity. Together, they have:

? carried out democratic reform to abolish Tibet's feudal theocratic serfdom, liberating millions of serfs and ensuring the fundamental interests of all ethnic groups in Tibet;

? established the socialist system and implemented regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet, bringing historic changes to Tibetan society; and

? pressed ahead with reform, opening up, and modernization, significantly unleashing the productive potential and improving the lives and working conditions of the people in Tibet.

In the new era, under the strong leadership of the CPC Central Committee with Xi Jinping at the core and with the vigorous support of the whole country, Tibet has eradicated extreme poverty. Enjoying a stable social environment, economic and cultural prosperity, and a sound eco-environment, the people now lead better lives and live in contentment. A brand new socialist Tibet has taken shape.

值此西藏和平解放70周年之際，回顧歷史進(jìn)程、展示偉大成就，全面立體真實(shí)展現(xiàn)社會(huì)主義新西藏，有助于以事實(shí)駁斥境外一些勢(shì)力散布的種種謊言，有助于國(guó)際社會(huì)正確認(rèn)識(shí)西藏翻天覆地的歷史巨變。
On the occasion of the 70th anniversary of Tibet's peaceful liberation, we are publishing this white paper to review Tibet's history and achievements, and present a true and panoramic picture of the new socialist Tibet. This will help to counter the propaganda spread by a number of Western countries and their allies and provide the international community with a balanced account of the enormous transformation that has taken place in Tibet.

一、和平解放前的西藏
I. Tibet Before the Peaceful Liberation

西藏自古就是中國(guó)神圣領(lǐng)土不可分割的一部分，是中國(guó)藏族主要聚居區(qū)之一。近代以來(lái)，以英國(guó)為首的帝國(guó)主義勢(shì)力一手制造了所謂的“西藏獨(dú)立”問(wèn)題，嚴(yán)重破壞了中國(guó)的主權(quán)和領(lǐng)土完整。
Tibet has been an integral part of Chinese territory since ancient times, and one of the main Tibetan-inhabited areas in China. In the aftermath of the Opium Wars in the middle of the 19th century, the UK-led imperialist powers began to cultivate the idea of “Tibet independence”, intentionally undermining China's sovereignty and territorial integrity.

——西藏自古是中國(guó)不可分割的一部分
–Tibet has been an inseparable part of China since ancient times.

中國(guó)是一個(gè)歷史悠久的統(tǒng)一的多民族國(guó)家，中華民族是一個(gè)命運(yùn)共同體。西藏是各民族共同開發(fā)的，西藏歷史是各民族共同書寫的，藏族和其他各民族在政治經(jīng)濟(jì)文化上的交流貫穿了西藏歷史發(fā)展始終，藏族就是在各民族交往交流交融中形成發(fā)展起來(lái)的。大量考古和學(xué)術(shù)研究表明，早在遠(yuǎn)古時(shí)期，居住在西藏高原的藏族先民就與漢族和其他兄弟民族有著血緣、語(yǔ)言和文化上的密切聯(lián)系。公元7世紀(jì)在西藏建立的吐蕃地方政權(quán)，為中國(guó)西南邊疆開發(fā)作出了重要貢獻(xiàn)。
China is a unified multiethnic country with a long history. The Chinese nation is a community of shared future. Tibet has developed through the combined efforts of all the ethnic groups in China, and these are the peoples who have created its history. The political, economic and cultural exchanges between Tibetans and other ethnic groups throughout history have had an important bearing on the development of the Tibetan people as an ethnic group. Abundant archeological and academic research shows that in times of remote antiquity, the ancestral people inhabiting the Tibetan Plateau had close ties with the Han and other ethnic groups in terms of blood, language, and culture. The Tubo Kingdom established in Tibet in the 7th century contributed significantly to the exploration of China's southwestern borders.

元朝（1271－1368年）中央政府實(shí)現(xiàn)了對(duì)西藏地方的有效管轄和治理。元朝設(shè)立總制院（后稱宣政院），直接管理西藏地方事務(wù)，在西藏清查戶口、設(shè)置驛站、征收賦稅、駐扎軍隊(duì)、任命官員，并將元朝刑法、歷法頒行西藏。明朝（1368－1644年）中央政府在西藏實(shí)施多封眾建，給西藏各地政教首領(lǐng)封以“法王”“王”“灌頂國(guó)師”等名號(hào)，設(shè)置烏思藏、朵甘兩個(gè)“衛(wèi)指揮使司”和“俄力思軍民元帥府”，分別管理衛(wèi)藏、昌都等地和阿里地區(qū)的軍政事務(wù)。清朝（1644－1911年）中央政府對(duì)西藏地方的管理十分完善，先后冊(cè)封藏傳佛教格魯派首領(lǐng)五世達(dá)賴和五世班禪，正式確立達(dá)賴?yán)锱c班禪額爾德尼的封號(hào)和政治、宗教地位，歷世達(dá)賴、班禪均須中央政府冊(cè)封遂成定制。設(shè)駐藏大臣，代表中央先后監(jiān)督、共管西藏軍政事務(wù)，總計(jì)派遣駐藏大臣百余人。1751年，乾隆皇帝授命七世達(dá)賴?yán)锱c駐藏大臣共同管理西藏地方政教事務(wù)。1793年，清朝政府在驅(qū)除廓爾喀入侵勢(shì)力之后整頓西藏地方秩序，頒布《欽定藏內(nèi)善后章程二十九條》，完善中央政府治理西藏地方的多項(xiàng)制度，明確規(guī)定達(dá)賴等大活佛轉(zhuǎn)世須經(jīng)金瓶掣簽認(rèn)定，并報(bào)中央政府批準(zhǔn)。此后清代五位達(dá)賴?yán)镏?，三位?jīng)金瓶掣簽認(rèn)定，其余兩位經(jīng)中央政府特批免于金瓶掣簽。
In the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), the central government exercised jurisdiction and governance over Tibet. It established the Supreme Control Commission of Buddhism (later renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs) to directly manage local affairs in the region, conducting censuses, setting up courier stations, collecting taxes, stationing troops and appointing officials. It also issued and enacted the Yuan criminal law and calendar in Tibet.

The central government of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) implemented a policy of multiple enfeoffment, conferring honorific titles such as “Prince”, “Prince of Dharma”, and “National Master in Tantrism” on political and religious leaders in various parts of Tibet. It established the U-Tsang and Do-kham regional military commissions and the Ngari Commanding Tribal Office to manage military and political affairs in U-Tsang, Qamdo and Ngari respectively.

During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the central government exercised sound governance over Tibet. It granted honorific titles to the leaders of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism – the 5th Dalai Lama and the 5th Panchen Lama – officially establishing the titles of the Dalai Lama and Panchen Erdeni and their political and religious status in Tibet. From then on, it became an established convention that the central government conferred the titles of Dalai Lama and Panchen Erdeni. The Qing government began to station Grand Ministers Resident in Tibet to supervise and jointly manage local military and political affairs on behalf of the central authorities; in total it appointed more than 100 such ministers. In 1751, Qing Emperor Qianlong authorized the 7th Dalai Lama to jointly manage local political and religious affairs with the Grand Minister Resident in Tibet. In 1793, after dispelling Gurkha invaders, the Qing government restored order in Tibet and promulgated the Imperially Approved Ordinance for Better Governance of Tibet (the 29-Article Ordinance), improving several of the systems by which the central government administered Tibet. The ordinance stipulated that the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama and other grand Living Buddhas had to follow the procedure of “drawing lots from the golden urn”, and the selected candidate would be subject to approval by the central government of China. Observing the ordinance, three of the five Dalai Lamas in the Qing Dynasty were selected and approved in accordance with this procedure, and the other two were exempted from the procedure with special approval from the central government.

清朝滅亡后，中華民國(guó)繼續(xù)對(duì)西藏實(shí)施主權(quán)管轄。1912年，中華民國(guó)第一部憲法《中華民國(guó)臨時(shí)約法》明確規(guī)定中央對(duì)西藏的主權(quán)，宣布“西藏是中華民國(guó)領(lǐng)土的一部分”，提出“合漢、滿、蒙、回、藏諸族為一人，實(shí)行五族共和”。同年7月，民國(guó)政府設(shè)蒙藏事務(wù)局。1929年，南京國(guó)民政府設(shè)立蒙藏委員會(huì)，管理蒙藏事務(wù)。1940年，國(guó)民政府在拉薩設(shè)蒙藏委員會(huì)駐藏辦事處，作為中央政府在西藏地方的常設(shè)機(jī)構(gòu)。民國(guó)時(shí)期官方和民間出版機(jī)構(gòu)出版的世界地圖和中國(guó)地圖，均將西藏列為中國(guó)領(lǐng)土。雖然民國(guó)期間軍閥混戰(zhàn)，內(nèi)亂頻仍，國(guó)家孱弱，但中央政府仍堅(jiān)定地維護(hù)了國(guó)家在西藏的主權(quán)。十四世達(dá)賴、十世班禪繼續(xù)接受了中央政府的冊(cè)封。國(guó)際上沒(méi)有一個(gè)國(guó)家和政府承認(rèn)過(guò)“西藏獨(dú)立”。
After the downfall of the Qing Dynasty, the Republic of China (ROC) continued to exercise sovereignty over Tibet. In 1912, the ROC issued its first constitution – the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, which reaffirmed the central government's sovereignty over Tibet. It clearly stipulated that “Tibet is a part of the territory of the ROC”, and stated that “the Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui and Tibetan peoples are of one nation, and are to run the Republic together.” In July, the government set up the Bureau of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs. The Nanjing National Government set up the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs in 1929 to act in the same capacity. In 1940, the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs opened an office in Lhasa as the permanent organ representing the central government in Tibet. Under the ROC, Tibet was clearly identified as Chinese territory in world maps and maps of China issued by government and non-government publishers. The central government of the ROC safeguarded the nation's sovereignty over Tibet in spite of frequent civil wars among warlords and a weak state, and following the tradition by conferring the official titles on the 14th Dalai Lama and the 10th Panchen Lama. No country or government in the world has ever acknowledged the “independence of Tibet”.

——所謂“西藏獨(dú)立”問(wèn)題是近代帝國(guó)主義侵略中國(guó)的產(chǎn)物
– “Tibetan independence” was a product of imperialist aggression against China in modern times.

自18世紀(jì)以來(lái)，西方一些勢(shì)力就通過(guò)“探險(xiǎn)”“考察”等手段覬覦我西藏。19世紀(jì)末，帝國(guó)主義掀起瓜分中國(guó)的狂潮，英國(guó)侵略勢(shì)力趁機(jī)染指西藏。鴉片戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)后，英國(guó)加緊從英屬印度侵略西藏，先后于1888年、1903年兩次武裝入侵，遭到當(dāng)?shù)剀娒駡?jiān)決抵抗。在武裝侵略未能達(dá)到目的后，又轉(zhuǎn)而在西藏培植親帝分裂勢(shì)力，策劃、煽動(dòng)“西藏獨(dú)立”。1907年，英俄秘密簽訂《西藏協(xié)定》，在中國(guó)政府不知情的情況下，第一次在國(guó)際文件中將中國(guó)對(duì)西藏地方的主權(quán)篡改為“宗主權(quán)”。1913年，英國(guó)策劃召開西姆拉會(huì)議，唆使西藏地方代表首次提出“西藏獨(dú)立”的無(wú)理要求，當(dāng)即遭到中國(guó)政府代表嚴(yán)詞拒絕。這便是“西藏獨(dú)立”一詞的首次出籠。1914年7月，中國(guó)政府代表拒絕在《西姆拉條約》上簽字，并發(fā)表聲明概不承認(rèn)任何此類條約或文件，同時(shí)將該立場(chǎng)照會(huì)英國(guó)政府，西姆拉會(huì)議遂以失敗告終。
Western attempts on Tibet began in the 18th century, pioneered by “adventurers” and “explorers” who made trips to the region. At the end of the 19th century, imperialist powers engaged in a fervent spree of carving up China, and the British aggressors took the opportunity to invade Tibet. British troops invaded Tibet twice in 1888 and 1903 and met with stubborn resistance from the Tibetan army and civilians. Its invasion plans thwarted, Britain began to cultivate pro-imperialist separatists in Tibet, devising activities to separate Tibet from China and championing “Tibet independence”. In 1907, Britain and Russia signed the Convention Between Great Britain and Russia on Tibet, without the Chinese government's knowledge, changing China's sovereignty over Tibet into “suzerainty” in an international document for the first time. In 1913, the British government engineered the Simla Conference to instigate the Tibetan representative to raise the issue of “Tibetan independence”, which was immediately rejected by the representative of the Chinese government. This was the first time the concept had been made public. In July 1914, the representative of the Chinese government refused to sign the Simla Convention, and made a statement saying that the government of China refused to recognize any such agreement or document. The Chinese government also sent a note to the British government, reiterating its position. Thereupon, the conference collapsed.

1942年，西藏地方政府在英國(guó)代表支持下突然宣布成立“外交局”，公開進(jìn)行“西藏獨(dú)立”活動(dòng)，因遭到全國(guó)人民和國(guó)民政府的反對(duì)而不得不改變?cè)h。1947年，英國(guó)幕后策劃邀請(qǐng)西藏派代表參加“泛亞洲會(huì)議”，在會(huì)場(chǎng)上懸掛的亞洲地圖和萬(wàn)國(guó)旗中把西藏作為一個(gè)獨(dú)立國(guó)家來(lái)對(duì)待，經(jīng)中國(guó)代表團(tuán)嚴(yán)正交涉，會(huì)議組織者不得不改正這種錯(cuò)誤做法。中華人民共和國(guó)成立前后，帝國(guó)主義加快了與西藏親帝分裂勢(shì)力勾結(jié)的步伐，1949年7月8日，西藏地方政府以“防止共產(chǎn)黨混跡西藏”為借口，下令將國(guó)民政府駐藏辦事處人員及相關(guān)人員驅(qū)趕出西藏，制造了拉薩“七·八”事件。1949年11月，西藏地方政府決定派所謂的“親善使團(tuán)”赴美國(guó)、英國(guó)、印度、尼泊爾等國(guó)，尋求對(duì)“西藏獨(dú)立”的政治支持和軍事援助，加緊分裂國(guó)家的活動(dòng)。1949年，美國(guó)人勞爾·湯姆斯（Lowell Thomas）以哥倫比亞廣播公司“無(wú)線電評(píng)論員”名義在西藏圖謀“華盛頓給西藏以可能的援助”，并在美國(guó)報(bào)刊上宣稱“美國(guó)已準(zhǔn)備承認(rèn)西藏為獨(dú)立自由”的國(guó)家。1950年上半年，一批美國(guó)槍支彈藥經(jīng)由加爾各答進(jìn)入西藏，用以對(duì)抗中國(guó)人民解放軍進(jìn)藏。
In 1942, the local government of Tibet, with the support of the British representative, suddenly announced the establishment of a “foreign affairs bureau” and began to openly engage in “independence” activities. With opposition from the Chinese people and the national government, the local government of Tibet had no choice but to withdraw its decision. In 1947, Britain conspired behind the scenes to invite Tibetan representatives to attend the Asian Relations Conference, and even identified Tibet as an independent country on the map of Asia hung in the conference hall and in the array of national flags. The organizers were forced to rectify this after the Chinese delegation made a stern protest.

Around the time of the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, imperialists accelerated their collusion with pro-imperialist separatists in Tibet. On July 8, 1949, the local government of Tibet issued an order to expel officials of the Tibet Office of the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs on the pretext of “prohibiting Communists from staying in Tibet”. In November 1949, the local government of Tibet decided to dispatch a “goodwill mission” to the United States, Britain, India, Nepal and a number of other countries, seeking political and military support for “independence” and making it obvious that it was intensifying separatist activities. In 1949, the American Lowell Thomas crossed Tibet in the guise of a “radio commentator” of the Columbia Broadcasting System to explore the “possibility of aid that Washington could give Tibet”. He wrote in a US newspaper: “The United States is ready to recognize Tibet as an independent and free country.” In the first half of 1950, American weaponry was shipped into Tibet through Calcutta in order to help resist the People's Liberation Army's entry into Tibet.

歷史事實(shí)清楚地證明，所謂“西藏獨(dú)立”問(wèn)題完全是帝國(guó)主義侵略中國(guó)的產(chǎn)物，驅(qū)逐帝國(guó)主義勢(shì)力出西藏是中國(guó)人民維護(hù)祖國(guó)統(tǒng)一的必然要求。
Historical facts clearly demonstrate that “Tibetan independence” was no more than a product of imperialist aggression against China. Driving imperialist forces out of Tibet was the precondition for the Chinese people to safeguard national unification.

——解放西藏是各族人民的熱切期盼
– Liberating Tibet was the shared aspiration of all ethnic groups in Tibet.

1949年9月2日，中國(guó)共產(chǎn)黨授權(quán)新華社發(fā)表題為《決不容許外國(guó)侵略者吞并中國(guó)的領(lǐng)土——西藏》的社論，指出“西藏是中國(guó)的領(lǐng)土，絕不容許任何外國(guó)侵略；西藏人民是中國(guó)人民的一個(gè)不可分離的組成部分，絕不容許任何外國(guó)分割。這是中國(guó)人民、中國(guó)共產(chǎn)黨和中國(guó)人民解放軍的堅(jiān)定不移的方針”。社論發(fā)表后，西藏各界紛紛響應(yīng)和擁護(hù)，盼望解放軍早日進(jìn)藏。就在新中國(guó)成立當(dāng)天，十世班禪致電中央政府：“速發(fā)義師，解放西藏，驅(qū)逐帝國(guó)主義勢(shì)力?！?2月2日，原西藏?cái)z政五世熱振活佛的近侍益西楚臣到西寧，向人民解放軍控訴帝國(guó)主義破壞西藏內(nèi)部團(tuán)結(jié)的罪行，請(qǐng)求迅速解放西藏。當(dāng)時(shí)在西藏頗有聲望的藏族學(xué)者喜饒嘉措也在西安發(fā)表談話，譴責(zé)帝國(guó)主義策劃拉薩當(dāng)局進(jìn)行所謂“獨(dú)立”的陰謀。1950年初，藏族農(nóng)牧民、青年、婦女和民主人士代表百余人在剛剛解放的蘭州集會(huì)，要求解放西藏。
On September 2, 1949, Xinhua News Agency, with authorization from the CPC, published an editorial under the headline, “Foreign Aggressors Are Resolutely Not Allowed to Annex China's Territory – Tibet”. The editorial pointed out, “Tibet is part of the Chinese territory; no foreign aggression is allowed. The Tibetan people are an inseparable part of the Chinese nation, and any attempt to divide them from China will be doomed. This is a consistent policy of the Chinese people, the CPC and the People's Liberation Army (PLA).”

All sectors of society of Tibet quickly responded and expressed support for the editorial and the hope that the PLA would enter Tibet as soon as possible. On October 1, 1949, the day the PRC was founded, the 10th Panchen Lama sent a telegram to the central government: “Please send troops to liberate Tibet and expel the imperialists as soon as possible.”

On December 2, Yeshe Tsultrim, an aide of the 5th Regent Reting Rinpoche, arrived in Xining, Qinghai Province, to lodge complaints with the PLA about the imperialists destroying the internal unity of Tibet, and urged the PLA to liberate Tibet as soon as possible.

Sherab Gyatso, a prominent Tibetan scholar, delivered a talk in Xi'an, denouncing an imperialist conspiracy through which Lhasa authorities would seek “independence”. In early 1950, over 100 Tibetan people, including farmers and herdsmen, young people, women and democratic representatives, assembled in Lanzhou in Gansu Province, which had been liberated not long before, and urged the PLA to liberate Tibet.

毛澤東主席和朱德總司令在復(fù)電十世班禪時(shí)指出：“西藏人民是愛祖國(guó)而反對(duì)外國(guó)侵略的，他們不滿意國(guó)民黨反動(dòng)政府的政策，而愿意成為統(tǒng)一的富強(qiáng)的各民族平等合作的新中國(guó)大家庭的一分子。中央人民政府和中國(guó)人民解放軍必能滿足西藏人民的這個(gè)愿望?！痹谥醒肴嗣裾挠⒚鳑Q策和全國(guó)各族人民的共同企盼下，解放西藏的偉大事業(yè)正式開啟。
In their reply to the 10th Panchen Lama, Mao Zedong and Zhu De stated, “The Tibetan people love the motherland and stand against foreign aggression. They are discontent with the policies of the reactionary Kuomintang government, and want to be part of the big family of a unified New China, where all ethnic groups are equal and work together for prosperity. The Central People's Government and the Chinese PLA will certainly comply with this wish of the Tibetan people.” With determined support from the Central People's Government, Tibet saw the hope of a peaceful liberation anticipated by the whole of China.

二、實(shí)現(xiàn)和平解放
II. Peaceful Liberation

為了應(yīng)對(duì)國(guó)際形勢(shì)的復(fù)雜變化和西藏地方的嚴(yán)峻局勢(shì)，滿足西藏人民要求早日解放的愿望，1949年12月，毛澤東主席在前往蘇聯(lián)訪問(wèn)、途經(jīng)滿洲里時(shí)，寫信給中共中央，作出了“進(jìn)軍西藏宜早不宜遲”的戰(zhàn)略決策。
To address the complex and changing international landscape and the difficult situation in Tibet, and to satisfy the Tibetan people's wish for liberation as soon as possible, Mao Zedong wrote a letter to the CPC Central Committee while in Manzhouli on his way to the Soviet Union for a visit in December 1949. In the letter, Mao made the strategic decision that “it is better for the PLA to enter Tibet sooner rather than later.”

——昌都戰(zhàn)役的勝利，為西藏和平解放創(chuàng)造條件
– The victory in the Qamdo Battle created the conditions for the peaceful liberation of Tibet.

根據(jù)進(jìn)藏交通狀況和西藏的民族、宗教特點(diǎn)，毛澤東主席提出“政治解決優(yōu)先”和解放西藏“不應(yīng)操之過(guò)急”的基本方針，中央人民政府隨后組織開展了大量的政治爭(zhēng)取工作，先后多次派代表團(tuán)或代表赴西藏進(jìn)行勸和，爭(zhēng)取能像解放北平、綏遠(yuǎn)、新疆等地一樣實(shí)現(xiàn)西藏和平解放。1950年2月，西北局派出藏族干部張競(jìng)成攜帶青海省人民政府副主席廖漢生致十四世達(dá)賴和攝政達(dá)扎·阿旺松饒的書信等赴藏聯(lián)絡(luò)勸和。3月，在中共中央批準(zhǔn)和西南局組織下，與西藏政教界有著良好關(guān)系的漢族高僧志清法師由成都啟程赴藏。7月，以塔爾寺當(dāng)才活佛為團(tuán)長(zhǎng)的青海寺院赴藏勸和團(tuán)從西寧出發(fā)。青海省人民政府副主席、著名藏族學(xué)者喜饒嘉措向十四世達(dá)賴和藏族同胞發(fā)表廣播講話，呼吁西藏地方政府“迅速派遣全權(quán)代表赴京進(jìn)行和平協(xié)商”。同月，西康省甘孜白利寺五世格達(dá)活佛一行赴藏。
Considering the difficulties of transport and the ethnic and religious characteristics of Tibet, Mao Zedong proposed two basic principles – to prioritize a political settlement, and to avoid undue haste in liberating Tibet. The Central People's Government organized and carried out a lot of work in political persuasion, sending delegates or delegations to Tibet for mediation on several occasions in order to achieve peaceful liberation, a strategy with proven success for Beiping (Beijing), Suiyuan and Xinjiang. In February 1950, the Northwest Bureau of the CPC Central Committee sent a Tibetan official named Zhang Jingcheng to Tibet with a letter from Liao Hansheng, then vice chairman of the Qinghai Provincial People's Government, directed to the 14th Dalai Lama and Regent Taktra Ngawang Sungrab. In March, an eminent Han monk, Master Zhiqing, who had good contacts in the political and religious circles of Tibet, set out for Tibet from Chengdu, with the approval of the CPC Central Committee and the support of the Southwest Bureau. In July, a delegation composed of members from Qinghai temples and monasteries, led by Taktser Rinpoche of Kumbum Monastery, set out from Xining. Sherab Gyatso, vice chairman of the Qinghai Provincial People's Government and a leading Tibetan scholar, delivered a radio talk, calling on the local government of Tibet to “quickly dispatch plenipotentiary representatives to Beijing for peace talks”. Also in this month, a delegation including the 5th Gedar Tulku of Beri Monastery in Garze, Xikang, went to Tibet.

然而，這一系列勸和促談活動(dòng)，受到帝國(guó)主義侵略勢(shì)力和西藏親帝分裂分子的重重阻撓。與此同時(shí)，西藏上層分裂分子與歷史發(fā)展潮流背道而馳，不顧地方經(jīng)濟(jì)凋敝而擴(kuò)大軍備、調(diào)遣藏軍，妄圖以武力抵抗人民解放軍，還勾結(jié)帝國(guó)主義勢(shì)力，建立電臺(tái)、散布謠言，人為制造民族隔閡，派出所謂“親善使團(tuán)”尋求一些國(guó)家對(duì)“西藏獨(dú)立”的支持。
However, these mediation activities suffered obstruction from Western imperialists and pro-imperialist separatists in Tibet. In the meantime, in spite of local economic decline, the separatists from the upper classes of Tibet expanded the Tibetan army and dispatched troops in an attempt to halt the PLA's advance. They also colluded with their imperialist supporters to set up radio stations, spread rumors to deepen the rifts among the Han and local people, and dispatched a “goodwill mission” to seek support from other countries.

在這種情況下，中共中央和毛澤東主席意識(shí)到解放西藏已經(jīng)迫在眉睫。西南局和西北局在中央人民政府的統(tǒng)一部署下，迅速做好進(jìn)軍西藏的準(zhǔn)備。進(jìn)藏部隊(duì)按照“政治重于軍事，補(bǔ)給重于戰(zhàn)斗”原則，根據(jù)中央“多路向心進(jìn)兵”部署，以十八軍為主力的人民解放軍分四路向西藏進(jìn)軍，并于1950年10月取得昌都戰(zhàn)役的勝利。昌都解放后，召開了昌都地區(qū)第一次人民代表會(huì)議，選舉產(chǎn)生了昌都地區(qū)人民解放委員會(huì)，成立了昌都地區(qū)僧俗人民爭(zhēng)取和平解放西藏工作委員會(huì)。昌都戰(zhàn)役的勝利為促進(jìn)西藏和平解放創(chuàng)造了條件。中央人民政府和毛澤東主席始終沒(méi)有放棄和平解放西藏的努力，在昌都戰(zhàn)役進(jìn)行中仍催促西藏地方政府盡快派人來(lái)京。
In the circumstances, Mao Zedong and the CPC Central Committee realized that the liberation of Tibet was a matter of extreme urgency. Under the unified deployment of the Central People's Government, the southwest and northwest bureaux of the CPC Central Committee issued a prompt order for troops to stand by.

The PLA troops followed the principles that military operations should only be carried out when political persuasion failed and the troops had sufficient supplies to fight a battle. Guided by the central authorities' strategy of outflanking the enemy from various directions, the PLA, with the 18th army as the major force, advanced into Tibet from four directions and won the Battle of Qamdo in October, 1950.

After the victory, the First People's Congress of Qamdo was held. The Qamdo People's Liberation Committee was elected and a working committee for the peaceful liberation of Tibet was founded, composed of both ecclesiastical and secular representatives. The battle created the conditions for the peaceful liberation of Tibet. The Central People's Government and Chairman Mao Zedong had never given up their efforts to this end. Even during the battle, Mao Zedong urged that a local Tibetan delegation should come to Beijing as soon as possible.

——簽訂《十七條協(xié)議》，西藏實(shí)現(xiàn)和平解放
– Signing the 17-Article Agreement marked the liberation of Tibet.

昌都戰(zhàn)役的勝利使西藏地方政府的愛國(guó)進(jìn)步力量進(jìn)一步增強(qiáng)，西藏地方政局朝著有利于和平解放的趨勢(shì)發(fā)展。1951年2月，西藏地方政府“官員會(huì)議”決定正式派出代表到北京同中央人民政府和談。十四世達(dá)賴在致中央人民政府的信中也表達(dá)了和平談判的愿望。4月29日，中央人民政府和西藏地方政府關(guān)于和平解放西藏的談判正式開始。雙方經(jīng)過(guò)認(rèn)真協(xié)商和充分討論，最終就西藏和平解放一系列問(wèn)題達(dá)成協(xié)議，于5月23日在北京簽訂了《中央人民政府和西藏地方政府關(guān)于和平解放西藏辦法的協(xié)議》（簡(jiǎn)稱《十七條協(xié)議》），宣告西藏和平解放。
The victory at Qamdo gave the upper hand to the patriotic and progressive forces within the local government of Tibet, and the political situation moved in the direction of peaceful liberation. In February 1951, an “officials' meeting” of the local government of Tibet decided to send a formal delegation to Beijing to conduct peace negotiations with the Central People's Government. The 14th Dalai Lama expressed his wish for peace talks in a letter to the Central People's Government. On April 29, the Central People's Government and the local government of Tibet began official negotiations for the peaceful liberation. After serious consultations and thorough discussions, they signed the 17-Article Agreement in Beijing on May 23.

《十七條協(xié)議》明確：“西藏人民團(tuán)結(jié)起來(lái)，驅(qū)逐帝國(guó)主義侵略勢(shì)力出西藏，西藏人民回到中華人民共和國(guó)祖國(guó)大家庭中來(lái)”“人民解放軍進(jìn)入西藏，鞏固國(guó)防”“中央人民政府統(tǒng)一處理西藏地區(qū)的一切涉外事宜”“西藏地方政府積極協(xié)助人民解放軍進(jìn)入西藏，鞏固國(guó)防”“在中央人民政府統(tǒng)一領(lǐng)導(dǎo)之下，西藏人民有實(shí)行民族區(qū)域自治的權(quán)利”“尊重西藏人民的宗教信仰和風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣”。《十七條協(xié)議》明確，對(duì)于達(dá)賴?yán)锖桶喽U額爾德尼的固有地位及職權(quán)，中央亦不予變更；原西藏地方政府中的各級(jí)官員，可以照常供職?！妒邨l協(xié)議》的簽訂，標(biāo)志著中國(guó)大陸實(shí)現(xiàn)了完全解放，新中國(guó)在西藏的主權(quán)地位得到完整體現(xiàn)，團(tuán)結(jié)了各方力量，維護(hù)了西藏社會(huì)大局穩(wěn)定，保障了中國(guó)共產(chǎn)黨民族、宗教、經(jīng)濟(jì)、文化政策在西藏的實(shí)行，為西藏社會(huì)發(fā)展改革打下了堅(jiān)實(shí)的政治基礎(chǔ)。
The 17-Article Agreement stipulates:

? The people of Tibet shall unite and drive out aggressive imperialist forces; they will return to the family of the People's Republic of China.

? The PLA troops shall enter Tibet to consolidate national defense.

? All foreign-related affairs of Tibet shall be dealt with by the Central People's Government on a centralized basis.

? The local government of Tibet shall actively assist the PLA to enter Tibet and consolidate the national defense.

? The Tibetan people shall have the right of regional ethnic autonomy under the unified leadership of the Central People's Government.

? The religious beliefs and customs of the Tibetan people shall be respected.

The agreement also clarified that the central authorities would not alter the established status, functions and powers of the Dalai Lama and Panchen Erdeni, and that former officials of all ranks in the local government of Tibet could continue to hold office. The signing of the 17-Article Agreement symbolized the final liberation of all the Chinese mainland, embodied the full sovereignty of the People's Republic in Tibet, united all forces to safeguard overall social stability, ensured the enforcement of the CPC's ethnic, religious, economic and cultural policies, and laid a solid political foundation for social development and reform in Tibet.

《十七條協(xié)議》的簽訂，得到全國(guó)各族各界的擁護(hù)。1951年5月28日，《人民日?qǐng)?bào)》用漢藏兩種文字對(duì)外公布協(xié)議全文，同時(shí)發(fā)表題為《擁護(hù)關(guān)于和平解放西藏辦法的協(xié)議》的社論，指出這是西藏人民從黑暗和痛苦走向光明和幸福的第一步。北京、西安、重慶、成都，以及新疆、內(nèi)蒙古等地各族群眾集會(huì)游行，熱烈慶祝《十七條協(xié)議》的簽訂。
The 17-Article Agreement gained the support of all ethnic groups and people from all walks of life across the country. On May 28, 1951, the People's Daily published in full the agreement in both Chinese and Tibetan accompanied by an editorial entitled “Supporting the Agreement on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet”. The article made the point that this was the first step for the Tibetan people out of a dark and miserable past and toward a bright and happy future. Assemblies and processions were held in Beijing, Xi'an, Chongqing, Chengdu, Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia to celebrate the signing of the agreement.

同日，十世班禪及班禪堪布會(huì)議廳全體人員發(fā)表聲明擁護(hù)協(xié)議，表示“我們今后堅(jiān)決擁護(hù)毛主席的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)，擁護(hù)中央人民政府和中國(guó)共產(chǎn)黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)”。10月24日，十四世達(dá)賴以西藏地方政府和他個(gè)人名義，向中央人民政府致電擁護(hù)協(xié)議，表示“中央人民政府毛主席：今年西藏地方政府特派全權(quán)代表噶倫阿沛等五人于1951年4月底抵達(dá)北京，與中央人民政府指定的全權(quán)代表進(jìn)行和談。雙方代表在友好基礎(chǔ)上已于1951年5月23日簽訂了關(guān)于和平解放西藏辦法的協(xié)議。西藏地方政府及藏族僧俗人民一致?lián)碜o(hù)，并在毛主席及中央人民政府領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下積極協(xié)助人民解放軍進(jìn)藏部隊(duì)鞏固國(guó)防，驅(qū)逐帝國(guó)主義勢(shì)力出西藏，保護(hù)祖國(guó)領(lǐng)土主權(quán)的統(tǒng)一”。
On the same day, the 10th Panchen Lama and the Panchen Kampus Assembly made a statement in support of the agreement, declaring, “We will be the staunch supporters of Chairman Mao's leadership, and of the leadership of the Central People's Government and the CPC.” On October 24, the 14th Dalai Lama, on behalf of the local government of Tibet and himself, sent a telegram to the Central People's Government to express his support for the agreement, which read, “Chairman Mao of the Central People's Government: This year the local government of Tibet sent five delegates with full authority, headed by Kalon Ngapoi, to Beijing in late April 1951 to conduct peace talks with delegates with full authority appointed by the Central People's Government. On the basis of friendship, the delegates of the two sides signed on May 23, 1951 the Agreement on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet. The local government of Tibet as well as the ecclesiastical and secular people unanimously support this agreement, and, under the leadership of Chairman Mao and the Central People's Government, will actively assist the PLA troops entering Tibet to consolidate national defense, ousting imperialist influences from Tibet and safeguarding the unification of the territory and the sovereignty of the motherland.”

——落實(shí)《十七條協(xié)議》，維護(hù)國(guó)家主權(quán)和促進(jìn)社會(huì)發(fā)展
– Implementing the 17-Article Agreement to safeguard national sovereignty and promote social development

按照《十七條協(xié)議》，從1951年9月到1952年6月，人民解放軍各路進(jìn)藏部隊(duì)先后到達(dá)拉薩，進(jìn)駐（抵）太昭、江孜、日喀則、山南隆子宗、亞?wèn)|、察隅、改則等地，完成進(jìn)軍西藏任務(wù)，結(jié)束了西藏4000多公里邊境線上長(zhǎng)期有邊無(wú)防的歷史。
In line with the 17-Article Agreement and between September 1951 and June 1952, the PLA troops in Tibet reached Lhasa and were dispatched to Gyamda, Gyangze, Xigaze, Lhunze Dzong, Yadong, Zayu and Gerze. For the first time in history Tibet's 4,000-km border was fully and properly defended.

1952年9月6日，中央人民政府駐西藏代表外事幫辦辦公室成立，在中央人民政府外交部領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，具體處理西藏地方一切涉外事宜。1954年4月29日，中印雙方在京簽訂《關(guān)于中國(guó)西藏地方和印度之間的通商和交通協(xié)定》，同時(shí)互換照會(huì)，取消印度繼承的英國(guó)侵略西藏遺留下來(lái)的特權(quán)。1956年9月20日，中國(guó)和尼泊爾簽訂《中華人民共和國(guó)和尼泊爾王國(guó)保持友好關(guān)系以及關(guān)于中國(guó)西藏地方和尼泊爾之間的通商和交通的協(xié)定》，取消了尼泊爾在西藏的特權(quán)。至此，完全實(shí)現(xiàn)了由中央政府統(tǒng)一處理西藏地區(qū)的一切涉外事宜。
On September 6, 1952, the foreign affairs office of the Central People's Government representative stationed in Tibet was set up, taking responsibility for all the foreign-related affairs of Tibet under the leadership of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Central People's Government. On April 29, 1954, in Beijing, China and India signed the Agreement on Trade and Intercourse Between the Tibet Region of China and India and exchanged diplomatic notes, abolishing the privileges India had inherited from the British invaders. On September 20, 1956, China and Nepal signed the Agreement on Maintaining Friendly Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Kingdom of Nepal and on Trade and Intercourse Between the Tibet Region of China and Nepal, which cancelled Nepal's privileges in Tibet. Henceforth, all the foreign-related affairs of Tibet would be dealt with by the Central People's Government on a centralized basis.

中央人民政府作出“進(jìn)軍西藏，不吃地方”及“精打細(xì)算，生產(chǎn)自給”等指示，提出“保障軍需，兼顧民用”“統(tǒng)一采購(gòu)，緊縮開支”等一系列財(cái)經(jīng)政策。人民解放軍進(jìn)駐拉薩后，先后建立“七一農(nóng)場(chǎng)”“八一農(nóng)場(chǎng)”開墾生產(chǎn)，依靠自身站穩(wěn)腳跟。同時(shí)從羊毛出口貿(mào)易著手，解決軍需民用問(wèn)題。
The Central People's Government issued a series of specific instructions and policies. Troops would be stationed in Tibet but would not depend on the local people for their grain supplies. They would operate according to a strict budget and produce what they needed. Food supplies would be guaranteed for the army itself while taking into consideration civilian needs. There would be unified procurement and economy would be practiced. Soon after the PLA troops entered Lhasa, they set up the Qiyi and Bayi Farms, reclaiming land to provide for themselves. They also used the revenues from export of wool to support the PLA and the local people.

在中央人民政府推動(dòng)下，1952年4月，十世班禪自青海返回西藏，與十四世達(dá)賴友好會(huì)晤。1953年，十四世達(dá)賴和十世班禪當(dāng)選為中國(guó)佛教協(xié)會(huì)名譽(yù)會(huì)長(zhǎng)，功德林活佛被選為副會(huì)長(zhǎng)。1954年9月，十四世達(dá)賴、十世班禪聯(lián)袂赴京參加新中國(guó)第一屆全國(guó)人民代表大會(huì)第一次會(huì)議，十四世達(dá)賴當(dāng)選全國(guó)人大常委會(huì)副委員長(zhǎng)。12月25日，十世班禪在全國(guó)政協(xié)二屆一次會(huì)議上，被選為全國(guó)政協(xié)副主席。1952年至1957年，中央政府組織了13批1000多人次到其他省市參觀、訪問(wèn)，成員包括西藏各地僧俗官員、僧人、青年和婦女，增進(jìn)了西藏與其他省市的聯(lián)系和各民族團(tuán)結(jié)。
Encouraged by the Central People's Government, the 10th Panchen Lama returned to Lhasa from Qinghai Province to have an amicable meeting with the 14th Dalai Lama in April 1952. In 1953, the Dalai and Panchen lamas were elected as honorary presidents of the Buddhist Association of China, with Living Buddha Kundeling as vice president. In September 1954, the Dalai and Panchen lamas went together to Beijing to attend the First Session of the First National People's Congress (NPC) of the People's Republic of China, with the former elected vice-chairman of the NPC Standing Committee. On December 25, the 10th Panchen Lama was elected vice chairman of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) at its First Plenary Session of the Second National Committee. From 1952 to 1957, a total of over 1,000 people in 13 groups, including ecclesiastical and secular officials, monks, and ordinary people including women and youngsters, made organized trips to other parts of the country, which strengthened connections between Tibet and the rest of the country and promoted national unity.

《十七條協(xié)議》簽訂后，在中央人民政府領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，西藏各項(xiàng)事業(yè)發(fā)展明顯加快?，F(xiàn)代教育體系逐步建立。1951年3月，創(chuàng)辦西藏第一所新型學(xué)校——昌都小學(xué)。1952年8月，創(chuàng)辦拉薩小學(xué)，隨后，日喀則、山南等地先后創(chuàng)辦28所公辦小學(xué)。1956年9月，西藏歷史上第一所現(xiàn)代正規(guī)初級(jí)中學(xué)——拉薩中學(xué)正式成立。1958年9月，西藏公學(xué)在陜西咸陽(yáng)正式開學(xué)，當(dāng)年共招收學(xué)生3460人，其中絕大部分是農(nóng)奴子女。交通運(yùn)輸條件明顯改善。1954年，川藏、青藏公路同時(shí)建成通車到達(dá)拉薩。1956年，西藏第一座機(jī)場(chǎng)——當(dāng)雄機(jī)場(chǎng)全部竣工，北京至拉薩正式通航?，F(xiàn)代農(nóng)牧工商業(yè)逐漸起步。大力發(fā)展種植業(yè)，改進(jìn)農(nóng)業(yè)灌溉系統(tǒng)。先后建成不同規(guī)模的小型工廠，各主要城鎮(zhèn)辦起了醫(yī)院、銀行、商店、郵局等服務(wù)機(jī)構(gòu)。文化事業(yè)明顯進(jìn)步。1953年10月1日，拉薩有線廣播站正式成立，有線廣播開播，并用藏語(yǔ)直播。1956年4月22日，《西藏日?qǐng)?bào)》藏、漢兩種文版創(chuàng)刊。群眾文化活動(dòng)豐富多彩，多地組建各種文工團(tuán)和聯(lián)誼會(huì)。1954年，新組建的西藏歌舞團(tuán)到北京、上海、廣州等地演出，受到當(dāng)?shù)貜V大干部群眾的熱烈歡迎。
After the signing of the 17-Article Agreement, rapid progress was made in all social undertakings of Tibet under the leadership of the Central People's Government.

A modern education system was gradually put in place. In March 1951, Qamdo Primary School was set up – the first modern school in Tibet. In August 1952, Lhasa Primary School was founded. Soon afterwards, 28 public primary schools were set up in locations such as Xigaze and Shannan. In September 1956, Lhasa Middle School was established – the first modern and standard middle school in the history of Tibet. In September 1958, Xizang Minzu University officially opened in Xianyang, Shaanxi Province, enrolling a total of 3,460 students, most of whom were the children of former serfs.

There were significant improvements in transport infrastructure. In 1954, the Qinghai-Tibet Highway and the Sichuan-Tibet Highway, both terminating at Lhasa, were completed and opened to traffic. In 1956, Damxung Airport – Tibet's first airport – was completed, linking Beijing and Lhasa through official air services.

Modern agriculture, animal husbandry, industry and commerce began to emerge. Great efforts were made to improve crop farming and agricultural irrigation. Small factories of various sizes were built. Hospitals, banks, stores and post offices were set up in major cities and towns.

Visible progress was made in cultural undertakings. On October 1, 1953, a radio station was set up in Lhasa, broadcasting live programs in Tibetan. On April 22, 1956, the Tibet Daily started publication in both Tibetan and Chinese. A variety of rich and varied recreational activities were set up, including art troupes and social clubs. In 1954, newly-established performing groups from Tibet went on a performance tour in cities such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou. They were universally and warmly welcomed by local audiences.